Schematic flow chart summarizing the sampling process.

A total of 4299 women were screened for this study. Forty seven women positive for P. falciparum infection in both placental and peripheral blood by microscopy were enrolled into the study (PM+ cases). Out of the 485 women who had no malaria parasite in the peripheral as well as placental smear, 122 were selected and included as healthy controls (PM-group).